Monarchy
Belgium ~ Monarchy
Development of the monarchy
Belgium spent much of its history ruled by other kingdoms. In 1815 it became part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, but most Belgians disliked having a Catholic king, and a revolt in 1830 led to the establishment of the kingdom of Belgium. It was felt that someone with royal blood should take the throne, and a council was established in London to choose a king from Europe's royal families. The Belgians preferred the Duke of Nemours (the son of the French king), but the other European monarchs felt this would give the French too much power.
In 1831, Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was chosen. The youngest son of a duke in eastern Germany, Leopold had fought against Napoleon and had been married to Charlotte, the daughter of King George IV of the United Kingdom. In 1832 he married Louise Marie, the daughter of the French king. His nephew, Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha married Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.
The Role of the Monarchy
When the King succeeds to the Belgian throne, he takes an oath before the Federal Parliament to observe the constitution and laws, to maintain national independence and the integrity of the territory. The king is seen as embodying the country's unity and independence, but has little actual power. He cannot act without the approval of his ministers. The king appoints and dismisses federal ministers and secretaries of state. He is commander-in-chief of the armed forces and has ceremonial functions. He is also considered a moral leader. The king has immunity: his ministers are held accountable for his actions.
Succession
The eldest son of the monarch succeeds, or, if there are no sons, the eldest daughter.
Denmark ~ Monarchy
Development of the monarchy
Denmark has one of Europe's oldest monarchies, dating from around 985 AD. Modern Danish monarchs are indirect descendants of the earliest kings.
Role of the monarchy
Legislative power is held jointly by the monarch and the Folketing. Executive power is held by the monarch, exercised through ministers. The ministers are responsible for the monarch's actions. The monarch appoints and dismisses the Prime Minister and ministers, and can introduce bills to parliament. The monarch acts on behalf of the kingdom in international affairs, but cannot decrease or increase the size of the country and cannot revoke an international treaty signed by the Folketing. The monarch cannot start a war without the consent of the Folketing. Bills passed by the Folketing must receive the assent of the monarch. The monarch can call a general election at any time.
Duties of the monarch include representing Denmark abroad and visiting within Denmark, for example opening buildings. The monarch holds public audiences and has weekly meetings with the Prime Minister and the Foreign Minister. The monarch makes an annual New Years Eve Speech, written by the monarch and approved by government.
Succession
The eldest son of the monarch succeeds, or, if there is no son, the eldest daughter. Monarchs must be members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church.
Germany ~ Monarchy
History of the monarchy
From the Middle Ages onwards, Germany was divided into many small states (each ruled by a prince, Duke or Bishop) and formed part of an empire known as the Holy Roman Empire. The Emperor had little actual power over the smaller states. In 1871, the German states were joined together under Kaiser Wilhelm as a German Empire. The Empire, which lasted until 1918 (when the democratic Weimar Republic was created) had only two emperors.
The constitution of 1871 gave universal male suffrage to elect the Reichstag, but the Reichstag really only had power in lawmaking and in budgetary matters. The real power was held by the Emperor, Chancellor, aristocracy and the military. The Chancellor, Otto von Bismark, did much of the policy making. When Wilhelm II succeeded to the throne, he decided he wanted more power and sacked Bismark. However, he lost much of his power to the military during World War One, and gave up all right to rule at the end of the war.
A small minority support the reintroduction of monarchy to Germany (http://www.pro-monarchie.de/)
Greece ~ Monarchy
History of the monarchy
Originally a collection of small city states, Greece spent much of its history as part of other empires (Alexander the Great, Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman). After the Greek War of Independence (1821-1830), it was decided that Greece should become a monarchy with a non-Greek as head-of-state. Otto of Bavaria (second son of the king of Bavaria, which is part of modern Germany) was chosen as king. Between the two World Wars, there were several coups and periods of dictatorship. A republic was proclaimed in 1924. Monarchy was restored in 1935, but King George II's Prime Minister Metaxas assumed dictatorial powers. After the Second World War, Greece had a civil war between communists and monarchists. A republic was declared in 1972, and a plebiscite in 1974 voted against the restoration of the monarchy.
King Otto's kingdom was protected by Great Britain, France and Russia, who had established the kingdom. At first the king had unlimited power, but this caused resentment among the Greeks. The King was pressured into granting a constitution in 1844, and was deposed by a revolution in 1862. The law of succession forbade the king of Greece to be the ruler of another country. This caused problems, because Otto's brothers were in line for the throne of Bavaria. The Great Powers (Great Britain, France and Russia) decided to find another royal to place on the Greek throne. They chose George, second son of King Christian IX of Denmark. All of Greece's monarchs after this date were descendants of George.
Under the original constitution, the King was inviolable and his actions were the responsibility of his ministers. The king had little power; all his acts had to be signed by a minister. The king was head of the armed forces and announced war and peace. On accession, the king had to swear to protect the dominant religion of Greece (the Eastern Orthodox Church), to protect the nation's independence and to protect territorial integrity. The king could grant asylum and pardons.
Spain ~ Monarchy
Development of the monarchy
After the Roman Empire and the invasion of the Moors, Spain developed a number of small kingdoms, which were eventually joined into one kingdom by the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille in 1476 and their conquest of Granada. This kingdom continued until the 20th century.
The Civil War ended the rule of the monarchy, and General Franco was declared head of state in 1936. In 1969, Franco declared that on his death, Prince Juan Carlos (grandson of the previous king) would become king. This happened in 1975.
Role of the monarchy
The 1978 Constitution states that the King is the head of state and the symbol of the county's unity and permanence. The king is inviolable, and his acts must be consented to and signed by a minister. He sanctions and proclaims laws, proposes the head of government and announces war and peace. He calls and dismisses parliament and calls referenda. The King is the head of the armed forces.
Succession
The crown is hereditary, passing to the eldest living son of the monarch, or if there are no sons, to the eldest daughter. An heir is excluded from the succession if he or she marries against the wishes of the monarch or the Cortes (parliament). The Salic Law, which prohibits females from inheriting the throne, was introduced in 1713 and repealed in 1830.
France ~ Monarchy
History of the monarchy
France spent much of its early history divided into small kingdoms. The kingdom of Hugh Capet, from 987, was centred around Paris. His descendants ruled an ever increasing kingdom until 1328, when the death of Charles IV (who had no male heirs) sparked the Hundred Years War. During this time, the French reintroduced Salic law, which states that not only can a female not inherit the throne, but that the line of succession cannot pass through females.
The authority of the crown was extended by Louis XIII. In the mid 16th century, a group called the Fronde objected to the absolute rule of the monarchy; they were eventually crushed.
In 1302, the Estates General met for the first time. Its purpose was for the assembled nobles, clergy and commoners to approve royal policy. The Estates General which was called in 1788 was the first to be called since 1614. In 1789, at the start of the Revolution, the Estates General became the National Assembly.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was sparked largely by economic and social pressures. The first act, the storming of the Bastille, was caused by the king's resistance to public demands. The king, Louis XVI, was executed in 1792. France became a republic until Napoleon Bonaparte assumed power and was crowned Emperor.
After the fall of Napoleon, there was a series of different types of government, including periods as a republic, a monarchy and an Empire. The final period of monarchy ended in 1848.
Succession
If monarchy was restored in France, there would be a great debate about who the new king would be. There are two lines of descendants from the last kings of France; one is a member of a line which took the Spanish throne. There is also a descendant of Napoleon Bonaparte, who could be considered to have a claim to the throne.
Ireland ~ Monarchy
History of the monarchy
During much of Ireland's early history, the country was divided into small areas ruled by 'petty kings' who were all ruled by the high king of Tara. From 1196 onwards, the English gained increasing control of Ireland, and the monarchy disappeared. When Ireland became independent from the UK in the 20th century, it became a republic.
Italy ~ Monarchy
History of the monarchy
Previously divided into many small independent states, Italy was united as a kingdom in 1861. Victor Emmanuel II (previously king of Sardegna-Piemonte) was proclaimed king. In 1924, Benito Mussolini became the head of a new Fascist government, and Italy became a dictatorship under him. The king remained as head of state, but had very little power. Mussolini was ousted in 1943 and executed in 1945. In 1946, after an election, a Republic was established in the place of the monarchy.
Luxembourg ~ Monarchy
Development of the monarchy
The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg became independent in 1815 under the Congress of Vienna, although the first Grand Duke was William I, who was also King of the Netherlands (which included Belgium). This link with the Netherlands was broken in 1890, when the Grand Duchy passed to Adolf, Duke of Nassau.
Role of the monarchy
The Grand Duke is the head of state, a symbol of unity for Luxembourg and a guarantee of national independence. He is inviolable; his ministers, who must countersign all his actions, are held responsible. He is head of the armed forces and declares war and peace (as sanctioned by the Chamber of Deputies). He also sanctions and proclaims laws. He is allowed to mint money and bestow titles of nobility. He may dissolve parliament.
Succession
The eldest son of the monarch succeeds, or, if there are no sons, the eldest daughter. Many of the most recent Grand Dukes have abdicated in their later years, in order to pass the throne to their heir.
Netherlands ~ Monarchy
Development of the monarchy
The Netherlands, which had previously been under foreign control, became independent as the Kingdom of the Netherlands (which at first included Belgium and Luxembourg) in 1815, under William of Orange.
Role of the monarchy
On succession to the throne, the monarch swears allegiance to the constitution. The monarch is not crowned, but invested as head of state. He is inviolable; his ministers are responsible for his actions. Acts of parliament must be signed by the King and a minister. The king appoints the Prime Minister, ministers and secretaries of state.
Succession
The first born child of the monarch (whether male or female) succeeds to the throne. Heirs must be descendants of William I and must be legitimate. If a King marries without the consent of parliament, he is deemed to have abdicated. If members of the royal family marry without the consent of parliament, they and their children are excluded from the succession.
Austria ~ Monarchy
History of the monarchy
From the 13th century, much of Austria was under the control of the Habsburg family, who were also Holy Roman Emperors, in control of the area of modern Germany. When the Holy Roman Empire was abolished in 1806, the Habsburgs kept the title Emperor of Austria. Between 1867 and 1920, under the Dual Monarchy of Austro-Hungary, the Emperor of Austria was also the King of Hungary. When this was dissolved (at the end of the First World War), the Emperor was deposed and Austria became a federal state.
Portugal ~ Monarchy
History of the monarchy
Portugal was united under one king in 1249. In the 16th and 17th centuries there was a period when the throne of Portugal was held by the Spanish monarchs. In 1822, a constitution was drawn up, elections began, and the country became a constitutional monarchy. Soon after this, Miguel, acting as regent for Maria, seized power and opposed the liberal constitution in favour of absolute monarchy. This led to a civil war, beginning in 1828. Miguel was defeated and the constitution was restored. In 1910, the monarchy was ousted by revolution and a republic was declared.
Finland ~ Monarchy
History of the monarchy
Finland spent much of its history under the control of the Swedes and the Russians, and only gained independence in 1917. In 1918, Finland was briefly designated a monarchy, to be ruled by the German prince Frederick Charles of Hessen. A month after this decision, on Germany's defeat in the First World War, Frederick refused the crown, and plans for a Finnish republic developed, with a president as head of state.
Sweden ~ Monarchy
Development of the monarchy
The constitutional monarchy was developed gradually during the second half of the 19th century. By 1919, the king no longer had the power to overrule government.
Role of the monarchy
The king's duties are defined by the 1974 constitution. The king is the head of state and the head of the armed forces. He chairs meetings of the Advisory Council on Foreign Affairs and opens the Riksdag every year. He is entitled to vote, but chooses not to, and is also liable to taxation. The king is inviolable. If the monarch does not carry out his duties for 6 months, he can be deemed by the parliament to have abdicated.
Succession
The eldest child succeeds, whether male or female. The monarch must be of the Evangelical faith and must bring up heirs in the same religion. If an heir does not profess the Evangelical faith, then they cannot succeed to the throne. If the heir marries without the consent of the monarch and government, they and their children are excluded from the succession.
United Kingdom ~ Monarchy
Development of the monarchy
The English monarchy developed in Anglo-Saxon times, when separate English kingdoms gradually united under the strongest leader to form a singe country. Wales originally had its own separate kingdoms, sometimes united and often acknowledging the overlordship of the English king, but from the late 13th century came fully under English rule. Scotland, also originally composed of separate kingdoms, was united from the 11th century (except for Orkney and Shetland, acquired by marriage in the 16th century). As a result of earlier marriages between the Scottish and English royal families, the two kingdoms were united under James VI of Scotland (James I of England) in 1603. Northern Ireland chose to remain part of the United Kingdom in 1921.
On several occasions in history the succession to the throne has been determined mainly by conquest (eg 1066, 1485) or by a decision of Parliament (1689, 1701). Constitutional struggles from Magna Carta onwards have gradually established the relative roles of the monarch and parliament.
The Role of the Queen
The Queen is the head of state of the United Kingdom, and also monarch of crown possessions outside the UK, such as the Channel Islands. She presides at ceremonial functions, represents Britain around the world and is the head of the Commonwealth, the Armed Forces and the Church of England.
The Queen assents to Bills passed by Parliament. No monarch has refused to approve a Bill since 1707, and so this is now a purely formal procedure. However, the Queen has the right to be consulted, to encourage and to warn Parliament. At the opening of Parliament each year, the Queen makes a speech, which is drafted by Parliament. The Queen appoints the Prime Minister and grants the dissolution of Parliament. The Queen is politically neutral; although she is not prohibited from voting in general and local elections, she does not vote.
The Queen is the head of the Church of England, and on accession had to swear to uphold the Church and ensure the Protestant succession. She also holds the title 'Defender of the Faith', a title held by English monarchs since Henry VIII defended the (Catholic) faith against the reformer Martin Luther in 1521. The Queen also appoints the church's bishops and archbishops.
As head of the Armed Forces, the Queen alone can declare war and peace, although these powers cannot be exercised on the monarch's own initiative. Members of the Army, Air Force and Royal Marines must swear allegiance to the monarch.
The Queen also bestows titles of honour on people. These include life peerages, knighthoods and gallantry awards. She personally selects the recipients of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Order of Merit, the Royal Victorian Order, the Royal Victorian Chain, the Royal Medals of Honour and the Medals for Long Service.
The Queen is the head of the Commonwealth. This is a symbolic role and has no constitutional functions. The Queen and other members of the royal family regularly visit the Commonwealth countries. The Queen's visits within the UK include opening buildings, meeting local dignitaries and visiting businesses, school, hospitals, homeless hostels, military units and charitable organisations.
The Queen spends a large amount of each day reading letters from the public, official papers and briefing notes. She receives reports from Parliament and the from the Commonwealth. She also has many audiences with political ministers and ambassadors.
Succession
The eldest son of the monarch succeeds, or if there are no sons, the eldest daughter. In accordance with the 1701 Act of Settlement, the monarch must be a member of the Church of England and may only marry a member of the Church of England (Catholics are specifically excluded). The Act also states that monarchs must be Protestant descendants of Princess Sophia (Electress of Hanover and granddaughter of James I) and must have been born within marriage. The sovereign rules through Parliament, the succession is regulated by Parliament and the sovereign can be deprived of the title through misgovernment.
Under the Royal Marriage Act of 1772, members of the royal family must seek consent of the monarch before marrying. If consent is refused, and the person goes ahead with the marriage, the marriage is considered null and void, and therefore any children are considered illegitimate and cannot succeed to the throne.
The question of divorce in succession is not covered by succession law. However, as head of the Church of England, the monarch should be guided by the Church's stance on such issues. Although there can be exceptions, in general a marriage remains intact in the eyes of the Church until one person dies. Until then, neither person is free to remarry, and will usually not be allowed to remarry in a church. Although King Edward VIII was not actually forced to abdicate, it was felt that if he married a divorcee (Wallis Simpson) it would not be seen as acceptable by the government or the public. He therefore chose to abdicate and marry Mrs Simpson.
Iceland ~ Monarchy
History of the monarchy
Iceland has never had a monarchy of its own. The country spent much of its history under the control of Denmark. On achieving independence in the 20th century, Iceland became a republic.
Norway ~ Monarchy
Development of the monarchy
After an early period of monarchy (beginning with King Harold in around 865 AD), control of Norway passed to Denmark in the 14th century. Control passed to Sweden in the 19th century. When Norway gained independence in 1905, it was decided that the country should become a monarchy, and Prince Karl of Denmark was crowned as King Håkon VII.
Role of the monarchy
The king has executive power, but all decisions must be countersigned by a minister. The king is inviolable. He can summon the Storting, pardon criminals and declare war and peace. He selects the Council and the Prime Minister. Bill are sent to the king, who either gives his assent or sends the bill back to parliament. The king is the head of the armed forces.
Succession
The first born child of the monarch (whether male or female) succeeds to the throne, although this only applies to those born after 1990 when the law was amended. (The current heir is the eldest son who has an older sister.) If the heir marries without the consent of the king and parliament, then they and their descendants are excluded from the succession. The king must profess the Evangelical Lutheran religion, and on succession promises to uphold and protect the Church.
Switzerland ~ Monarchy
History of the monarchy
Switzerland has never had its own monarchy. It became part of the Holy Roman Empire and was ruled largely by the Habsburg family. In 1291, three cantons broke from the Empire and formed a confederation. This confederation grew over the following centuries to form the modern federal Switzerland.